九九热精品视频在线-九九热九-九九热九九-九九热九九热-九九热免费观看-九九热女-九九热热黄-九九热视频精品-九九热视频精品在线-九九热视频免费播放-九九热视频免费观看-九九热视频在线

enciclopédia

Why wild venison is a climate-friendly swap for beef

tfqac

18 Sep 2025(atualizado 18/09/2025 às 23h25)

In countries like Scotland where deer populations are culled, eating wild venison can be a low-carbo

Temas

Compartilhe

Justi?a Federal da Bahia abre processo seletivo com salários de R$ 3 mil para atua??o em 16 cidades; saiba como se inscreverWhy wild venison is a climate-friendly swap for beef

Why wild venison is a climate-friendly swap for beef

In countries like Scotland where deer populations are resultado da quina 5525culled, eating wild venison can be a low-carbon option.

My last meat feast was seven years ago. My parents -were visiting me in London from Costa Rica and we spent the evening going through the brief but rich menu of a small steak restaurant. For them, it was their final meal before returning home; for me, a farewell to my most carnivorous days.

In the years since I've kept a diet of mostly vegetarian dishes, bits of seafood and the occasional exception. As this diet emerged from my work covering climate change, I pick and choose with that in mind: if an animal product is low carbon, like mussels, it will be on my plate regularly. Meat?–?a high-carbon food – features on my plate for special meals, like my mum's pork leg for Christmas, or on the rare occasion I really crave something like the Costa Rican pork belly-based specialty chifrijo.

Each person has their own approach to climate-friendly food; mine is to reduce food-related emissions, not to have a perfect vegetarian scorecard.

Since I moved to Scotland a few years ago, a new wrinkle has appeared: venison?– the meat from deer. Deer populations are out of hand here: the Scottish Government estimates that the overall population could be around one million, up from half a million in 1990. Deer are thriving, partly because humans eradicated their predators, such as wolves and lynx centuries ago.

In response, deer populations are culled every year to keep numbers in check. In my pragmatic climate diet, venison felt like fair game as long as it came from wild deer.

But, was it? This question was on my mind when I was dining at a cosy pub in Mallaig in the Scottish Highlands and spotted venison steak on the menu. Could wild deer really feature in a climate-conscious diet?

"I think the answer here is clearly yes," says Matthew Moran, a professor of biology at Hendrix College in Arkansas, US. Moran co-authored a study in 2020 on the potential carbon savings of wild game harvests in the US.

When Moran's team added up all the animals hunted in US, it was the equivalent of over 3% of all meat consumption nationally. They then asked themselves by how much the country could reduce its meat-related emissions if those hunters swapped shop-bought beef or chicken for their prey (90% of them deer and their relatives).

Their conclusion? The emissions' reduction was equivalent to removing 400,000 cars from the road each year.

"The main reason being is that if you harvest deer from the wild as a food source, there is little or no habitat destruction," Moran explains, "unlike what is involved in raising meat on farms".

Moran's argument rings true, but the answer gets messier the deeper you look. Venison can be a low-carbon option if the deer are not farmed and truly wild. As a meal, wild venison can have a small carbon footprint, as long as hunters don't travel a long way to cull the deer.

Venison can form part of climate-friendly diets on a local level, but the issue grows complicated when considered on a global scale.

"The problem is scale," says Hannah Ritchie, deputy editor and lead researcher at Our World in Data, an organisation that makes scientific data accessible and understandable, and a global development researcher at the University of Oxford in the UK.

"Yes, it might be a reasonable – and low-carbon – choice for a small percentage of the UK population to eat wild venison, but the numbers just don't work for any critical mass of people," she says.

To explore this question, I started with a simpler one: how can one know if something you're eating contributes to climate change?

Beef is a good example of a high-carbon food. The emissions related to all beef cattle are around 5% of global emissions.

When forests or grasslands are cleared to make way for grazing fields and for crops that become animal feed, they release carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. When cows digest food, they naturally produce masses of methane, a potent warming gas. And then there's the fuel used to transport cattle to fields and slaughterhouses, the energy used by retail and storage facilities and every other material involved in the process.

Take all the greenhouse gas emissions associated with beef and divide them by how many burgers you can produce, and you have your carbon footprint per burger.

To produce 100 grams of protein from beef (scientists often use protein as a handy equivalent to compare different foods), on average 25 kg of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) is released. Producing the same amount of protein from peas, results in 0.4 kg of CO2e. Tofu releases 1.6kg, chicken generates 4.3kg and pork 6.5kg of CO23 per 100g of protein.

CO2 equivalent, or CO2e, is the metric used to quantify the emissions from various greenhouse gases on the basis of their capacity to warm the atmosphere – their global warming potential.

The gap between meat and other sources of non-animal protein is high. So, how does the venison steak on the menu at Mallaig compare?

Firstly, I had to make sure that this was wild, and not farmed, venison. The entire appeal of wild venison, compared to industrial meat, is that you're not rearing additional animals in warehouses or pens – and finding farmed venison on a menu in Scotland is not uncommon, despite the abundant local wild supply.

I asked the waitress about this, and she said their venison came from Knoydart, the wild and remote peninsula across the loch from Mallaig. Satisfied, I ordered one. Being wild or not, it turns out, is the first big question.

In February 2024, the Scottish Venison Association commissioned a report to estimate the carbon footprint of country's wild venison. The authors tracked factors such as the fuel used by vehicles driven by deer managers and by hunters, the energy used in the processing facility and the methane released by deer themselves. Deer are ruminant animals, just like cows, sheep and goats. This means they have more than one stomach chamber and belch out methane when they digest their food. Methane is a highly potent gas, which, although shorter-lived in the atmosphere, has a global warming impact?84 times higher than carbon dioxide (CO2) over a 20-year period.

According to the Scottish Venison Association's report, producing 100 grams of protein from wild venison, generates 11.9kg of CO2e. And while this is not the same method as the study that compared different protein sources, it gives a ballpark estimate: less than beef, but higher than chicken and pork. Hardly a climate-friendly meal.

But there's a big caveat: over 90% of this footprint comes from deer themselves. And this opens a debate between experts doing the bean-counting for greenhouse gas emissions.

"There's a fundamental [carbon] accounting question: wild deer would exist and produce methane regardless of whether they're culled for venison – so should it count?" says University of Edinburgh academic Christopher Hirst, who authored a 2021 report on wild deer and carbon sequestration in Scotland that concluded that deer densities need to be reduced to reach climate targets.

In a separate study in northern Italy, researchers analysing licensed hunting culls, also found that if they counted the methane from deer, the carbon footprint of venison ballooned?– overtaking even that of beef in some circumstances.

And here is the nerdy question at the heart of venison's carbon footprint: should you count the methane from wild deer in a venison burger?

If this was a beef burger, the answer would be an emphatic yes. The cow was bred specifically for human consumption, so her methane (the largest chunk of a cow's greenhouse gas output) is impossible to distance from the burger.

In the case of venison, Hirst and others argue that "wild deer populations are not being maintained at these high levels for venison production". In Scotland, where one million deer roam the country, most wild venison is a byproduct of culling programmes required to protect the Scottish landscape from overgrazing.

"These deer would exist?– and emit methane?– regardless of whether they're culled and their meat is subsequently utilised for food," says Hirst, who is currently undertaking a PhD focusing on deer and forest management at the University of Edinburgh.

Experts like Hirst acknowledge a critique to this idea: that there is nothing natural about deer numbers in Scotland (and elsewhere where they need culling), as they reflect how humans have removed predators, altered their habitat and often fight back against efforts to control populations.

But in places where culling takes place, and deer meat is available, would it not make sense to use it? If we take the view that deer's methane should not be counted, the climate impact of Scottish venison would be much, much lower than beef, and lower than chicken and pork. According to the Italian study, deer would also be a much more sustainable option than beef, but not quite as climate-friendly as chicken and pork.

Once you've established whether deer is wild or not, one must turn to the hunters as the next big issue. Both in the Italian and the Scottish studies, around 90% of non-methane emissions came from the petrol used by hunters and by others in the industry.

And the hunters, it turns out, hold the key to making my venison steak low carbon or not.

"If you travel a long distance to hunt, then any greenhouse gas savings are probably lost in what is produced by the travel vehicle," says Moran.

More like this:

? Why do we throw away the best bit of the fruit?

? The benefits and risks of foraging your own food

? Is alcohol a secret polluter?

By now, I'm hoping that my steak was the result of a local hunter near Mallaig or Knoydart. And I'm also praying that they are very good at their jobs. The Italian case study explains why.

Its researchers were extremely thorough and counted all hunters for the 2015 season (there were 168) and noted down how many deer they each managed to kill: from a disappointing zero to the allowed maximum of four. Collectively, they culled 140 red deer.

According to this study, 71 hunters (who travelled on average 818km or 508 miles) went home empty handed. And bad shooters are bad for the carbon footprint of venison.

The Italian researchers put it this way: if these 71 people would have stayed home, the remaining 97 hunters could have killed the 140 red deer, they would not have the burden of the petrol-related emissions of the bad-shooters and the carbon footprint per kilogram of venison would roughly half.

Should we be more selective about who gets a hunting license to lower venison emissions? Or – a more surprising solution suggested in the study -– invest in better training for hunters?

But this is deep in the weeds and, as Ritchie puts it: "we're missing the bigger picture here" by zooming so closely into the exact number of emissions linked to each gram of venison protein.

Ritchie is referring to the fact that you can't feed the masses with wild venison. Even if you killed every single deer in Scotland, you would not remotely meet the country's meat supply. The US case study confirms this: the entire national wild game harvest accounted for only 3% of meat calorie intake.

"The carbon footprint is almost beside the point: we just can't get anywhere close to meeting our meat demand with wild animals," Ritchie points out.

But there's another reason why eating venison might be good for the climate.

Many countries have climate targets that depend on trees sucking carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere via photosynthesis and storing it in themselves and underground. That is why there has been a myriad of projects in recent decades to expand and protect woodlands.

But deer are hungry animals that will happily eat young trees and new shoots of old ones. At very high densities in some parts of the US, up to 75% of seedlings were damaged. In Scotland, a survey in 2013 found deer impact 15-20% of young trees.

"Without controlling deer populations, new woodland creations and existing woodlands will not achieve their carbon sequestration potential," says Hirst, who authored the report on how wild deer affect carbon sequestration in Scottish woodlands.

There are no studies showing how much greenhouse gases could be kept out of the atmosphere by culling deer in Scotland, but scientists like Hirst agree that reducing deer would increase carbon storage.

Forestry and Land Scotland spent £38.8m (around $55m) between 2014 and 2019 on deer management. While a small offset came from their venison sales, which accounted for about £9m ($12.1m) in that period (there are other venison dealers in the country), it is an expensive activity.

"Increasing venison consumption from wild deer in Scotland could be part of an approach to support the ongoing management of deer in Scotland, both for climate goals and landscape recovery," Hirst says.

But there are barriers to consumers picking venison off the shelves, Hirst says, including price, availability and cooking habits. Those must be overcome to make venison a regular part of people's diets.

"My personal opinion is that vegetarianism is basically a niche diet that will never be popular amongst the majority of people," says Moran. "Eliminating meat seems unlikely to succeed because of personal preference. So, my argument is that encouraging wild game consumption will satisfy many people's meat desires, but in a more sustainable way."

Looking back, I wonder whether the venison steak I ate came from a deer shot by an efficient local hunter.

I asked myself the same when my mother-in-law made a venison stew from strips she bought at Knoydart (steak was too pricey, stir-fry strips were more affordable) or when I spotted venison at a tasting menu in an upmarket restaurant.

In the past, I would have only asked to the waiter: "Excuse me, is this wild or farmed venison?" Now I know there's more to it than that. But in a country with a rampant deer population, it feels like a reasonable protein source.

When I visited the Kinross Livestock Fair, near Loch Leven in Fife, a few weeks ago, there was a stall selling a variety of burgers – beef, beetroot, chicken and venison.

I quizzed the server, who was confident in her replies. "Yes, it is wild deer. Yes, it was shot locally" – less than 20 miles (32.2km) away, in Cupar. And then it was my turn to say yes. The venison burger was delicious.

--

For essential climate news and hopeful developments to your inbox, sign up to the?Future Earth newsletter,?while?The Essential List?delivers a handpicked selection of features and insights twice a week.

For more?science, technology, environment and health stories?from the BBC, follow us on?Facebook?and?Instagram.

Copyright 2025 BBC. All rights reserved. The BBC is not responsible for the content of external sites.?Read about our approach to external linking.

NEWSLETTER GRATUITA

Nexo | Hoje

Tesco to Victoria's Secret India's booming back-offices worry about rising trade barriers.txt

Festival de hambúrguer tem lanches a partir de R$ 39,90 em Salvador enciclopédia e os abrangente conhecimento.

GRáFICOS

nos eixos

Sudan_UN_arms_embargo_violated_by_SAF_RSF_investigation_finds.txt

Bem-Estar #302: Tadalafila: recorde de vendas e riscos do uso sem indica??o abrangente e os entretenimento conhecimento.

Navegue por temas

Drogas, arma, muni??es e cédulas de real e cruzados s?o apreendidas em abordagem no oeste da Bahia Gregório Duvivier, Russo Passapusso, Roseana Murray, Rita Batista e mais: veja atra??es confirmadas na Flica 2025 Família produz arte inspirada no Maracá e Cunani e homenageia Mazag?o Velho na Expofeira do AP Ex-RBD Christian Chávez anuncia show em Salvador com ingressos de até R$ 1 mil Programa oferece assistência especializada gratuita para pessoas interessadas em gestar em Salvador; veja como ter acesso Bem-Estar #307: Chuva de boletos: o que fazer para manter a saúde mental mesmo com dívidas? Afropunk 2025 terá show de Tatau, Lazzo e Márcia Short em homenagem aos 40 anos de Axé Music; confira grade completa Motorista é flagrada com sinais de embriaguez após acidente e tenta subornar policiais em Lauro de Freitas Programa oferece assistência especializada gratuita para pessoas interessadas em gestar em Salvador; veja como ter acesso Bem-Estar #308: Sofre com gases? Saiba o que fazer
国产熟女aa级毛片www | 国产精品成人无码久久久 | 国产精品福利在线播放 | 国产你懂的在线看网址 | 成人国产免费午夜福利片在线 | 国产美女视频爽爽爽 | 国产精品午夜一级毛片密呀 | 国产a级免费 | 国产丝袜一区二区在线播放 | 国产精品三级一区二区 | 2025中国欧美成熟电影全集 | 99国产高清在 | 国产精品国三级国产av | 91在线黄色视频 | 国产粉嫩精品喷潮在线观看 | 国产精品国产三级国 | 成人综合国内精品久久久久久影院 | 国产精品一区二区av不卡 | 高清国产一级精品毛片基地 | 91亚洲精品国产自 | 国产经典在线观看一区 | 国产欧美视频一区二区 | 国产偷人妻精 | 成人国产免费av一区二区三区 | 国产成人午夜 | 国产精品亚洲一区二区在线观 | 国产成人午夜福在线观看 | 国产精品高潮呻吟久久 | 国产97人人超碰caoprom… | 国产欧美丝袜在线二蜜芽tv | 91精品资源在线观看 | 国语高清在线视频二区 | 国产精品猎奇系列在线观看 | 东京无码熟妇人妻av在线网址 | 99久久精品日本一区二区免费 | 国产精品无码无卡毛片不卡视频 | 国产成人一区二区三区影院 | 国产亚洲欧美另类第一页 | 精品无码人妻一区二区三区 | 国产成人午夜精品 | 国产精品粉嫩美女在 | 国产户外一区二区三区在线 | 国产成人鲁鲁免费视频a | 成人黄视频在线 | 国产精品乱码久久久久久小说 | 国产精品稀缺盗摄盗拍福利 | 成在线观看免费网站 | 国产女女另类在线播放 | 国产精品无码一本二本三本色 | 韩国三级大胸女高清视频 | 91成人免费福利网站在线 | 国产精品福利一区二区 | av在线中文字幕不卡电 | 国产成人精品月日本亚洲语音 | 国产剧情精品亚洲一区二区 | 国产福利91精品一区二区三区 | 国产厨房一区二区三区 | 91在线免费观看高清视频 | 国产成人无码精品久久二区三区 | 国产精品偷窥熟女精品视频 | 国产肥熟女视频一区二区三区 | 18国产精品白浆在线观看免费 | 国产精品无码不卡视频 | 国产成人精品亚洲v无人区一区 | 国产91精品花蝴蝶在线观看 | 国产精品系列在线一区 | 国产成人69精品视频竹菊 | 国产精品一区99国产aaa精 | 国产福利刺激视频视频 | 国产偷窥女洗浴在线观看 | heyzo无码国产精品蜜臀av | 国产精品美脚玉足脚交欧美 | 国产寡妇树林野战在线播放 | 韩国无码中文字幕在线视频 | 成人精品视频在线观看 | 国产精品天干天干在线综合 | 18国产精品 | 国产成人免费av在线播放 | 丰满熟妇人妻中文字幕 | 国产91精品看黄网站 | 91日本在线精品高清观看 | 精品麻豆一区二区 | 国产91熟女一区二区三区 | 高清国产亚洲精品自在久久 | 成人在线免费电 | 国产精品一区久久久久 | 国产成人精品亚洲日本在线 | 国产不卡福利片在线观看浪潮 | 91精品综合久久久久m3u8 | 国产精品自产拍在线涩爱 | 国产美女裸体 | 国产成人av无码精品 | 国产黄片免费观看 | 高潮毛片无遮免费高清 | 国产成人精品一区二区三在线观看 | 91丝袜在线观看 | 国产一区二区三四区爱情岛 | 国产亚洲精久久久无码av | 国产不卡视频一区二区三区四区 | 1024看片福利永久国产 | 国产蜜芽尤物在线一区 | 91精品国产人成网站 | 国产亚洲精久久久久久无码色戒 | 成人中文乱幕日产无线码 | 91成人无码免费一区二区尤物 | 国产精品日本一区二区在线 | 国产成人亚洲精品影院 | 国产av精品一区二区三区视频 | 国产亚洲精久久久久久无码浪潮 | 国产日韩一区二区三免费高清 | h无码精品动漫在线观看导航 | 国产亚洲成aⅴ人片在线奶水 | 国产精品国产三级厂七 | 果冻传媒一区二区天美传媒 | 国产午夜成人无码免费看不卡 | 91精品成人 | 国产熟女乱子视频正在播放 | 变态另类国产精品制服丝袜 | 国产成人手机在线播放 | av麻豆出品免费在线观看 | 国产激情一区 | 丰满少妇大乳高潮在线 | 韩国三级丰满40少妇高潮 | 精品国产性色无码av网站 | av片免费看 | 国产精品一区二区久久精品涩爱 | 18禁日本黄无遮挡禁免费网站 | 精品国偷自产在线视频99 | 国产专区亚洲精品无码 | 国产丝袜视频一区二区三区 | 国产精品无码av一区二区三区 | 91婷婷韩国欧美一 | 国产蜜臀一区二区三区亚洲 | 国产午夜精品亚洲精品国产 | 国产成人精品一区二区三区无码 | 国产在线aaa片一区二区99 | 高潮一区二区三区四区在线播 | 国产精品白丝jk白祙喷水视频 | 国模少妇无码一区二区三区 | 成人午夜福利电影天堂 | 国精品无码一区二区三区在线蜜臀 | 国产精品亚洲片在线观看不 | 国产91尤物在线观看 | 国产一区二区不卡在线看 | 97午夜理论片影 | 国产精品自拍台湾一区 | 东京热男人av天堂 | 成人无码在线视频播放 | 国产一区二区三区日韩 | 国产精品六区久久综合亚洲a | 黑人巨大精品一区二区在线 | 高清无码a片天天操天天操 高清无码com. | 国产亚洲日韩欧美一区 | 国产精品亚洲综合91久 | 成人一区二区三区视频在线观看 | 动漫精品中文字幕制服一区 | 国产成人高清精品免费鸭子 | 国产精品丝袜在线观看 | 国产综合成人观看在线 | 国产精品片天天看视频 | 国产综合av一区二区三区无码 | 国产欧美精品亚洲一区二区 | 国产成人咱精品视频免费网站 | 国产av丝袜一区二区三区 | av片亚洲国产男人的天 | 国产美女精品在线观看 | 97无码免费人妻视频 | 国产精品乱子伦一区二区三区 | 国产精品熟女视频一区二区 | 91传媒秘入口| 91久久久精品免费观看国产 | 国产麻豆剧传媒精品国产免费 | 国产精品亚洲四区在线观看 | 丰满人妻无码专区视频 | 国产白嫩护士被 | 国产精品白浆无码浪潮av | 91麻豆精品国产自产 | 国产精品视频一区二区三区无码 | 成人精品一区二区三区电影黑人 | 2025国内精品久久久久精品 | 国产精品日本不卡一区二区 | av麻豆免费在线观 | av色伊人久久综合一区二区 | 国产精品精 | 国产三级农村妇女在线看系列 | 97人妻天天摸天天爽天天 | 国产精品制服丝袜美腿控 | 国产精品高潮呻吟88av | 国产在线一二三四区 | 国产精品露脸国 | 91精品第一国产综合精品 | 成年女人色毛片免费看 | 国产成人亚洲精品影院 | 91精品国产高清久久久久久 | 国内综合精品午夜久久资源 | 国产成人手机在线播放 | 国产三级精品三级专区 | 精品日韩二区三区精品视频 | 丰满爆乳无码专区一区 | 国产精品欧美一区二卡 | 国产精品偷伦视频免费 | 国产成人精品午夜 | 国产精品嫩草国产精品嫩草 | 白嫩一区二区在线视频 | 国产成人久久精品麻豆二区 | 精品福利一区二区三区免费视频 | 国产重口老太和两个小伙另类 | 精品无人区乱码一区二区三区手机 | 国产在在线免费观看 | 国产福利在线观看日本二区三区 | 国产精品一区二区电影 | 国产福利在线 | 国产成人无码a片免费男男中文 | 国产成人av在线线奂播 | 国产成人啪精品午夜在线观看 | 国产综合免费精品久久久 | 国语对白在线播放 | 91在线免费观看高清视频 | 国产黄色一级网站 | 国产9191精品 | 精品视频一区二区在线 | 国产精品一区成人精品五月 | 国产视频一区二区无弹窗 | 国产成人无码aⅴ片在线观 国产成人无码aⅴ片在线观看 | 京野结衣免费一区二区 | 国产精品高跟丝袜一区 | 国产日韩亚洲欧美精品观看 | 国产成人综合αv在线 | 国产免费区在线观看十分钟 | 国产精品国产主播在线观看 | 国产成人mv在线播放 | 成人区人妻精品黑人av | 91精产国品一二三产区粉粉 | 国产精品va在线播放 | 国产毛片一区 | 精品无码中文视频在线观看 | 国产日韩亚洲中文在线 | 国产在线拍小情侣国产拍拍偷 | 国产三级精品aⅴ | 国产一区二区免费精品 | 精品国产福利在线观看一区 | 国产成年女人特黄特色大片 | 国产亚洲日韩网曝欧美精品 | 91国自产精品中文字幕亚洲 | 国产精品国三级国产av视色 | 国产成人精品一区二区三区无码 | 91精品国产99久久青草蜜桃 | 国产免费又粗又猛又爽视频国产 | 精品国产va久久久久久久 | 国产偷窥一区二区三区 | 激情人妻无码又大又粗蜜桃av | 成人免费无码不卡毛片 | 国产激情久久久久影院蜜桃av | 爆出白浆人人 | 国产精品一区二区三区四区 | 国产在线观看超清无码视频一区二区 | 国产不卡无码 | 国产精品一区二区三区人妖 | 国产精品毛片一区 | 交换国产精品视频一区 | 国产91玉足脚交在线播放 | 国产麻豆激情无码aⅴ毛片久久 | 国产美女裸体无遮掩免费牛牛 | 国产91精品在线观看导航 | 国产日韩精品一区二区 | 国产欧美日韩在线一区二区 | 国产精品v日韩精品v | 国产欧美va欧美va香蕉在线 | 国产精品无码亚洲av一区 | 国产福利一区二区麻豆 | 国产精品无码一区二区三区不卡 | 国产成人理论在线观看视频 | 精品日产一区二区三区 | 高潮喷水无码一 | 国产激情久久精品 | 波多野结衣人妻在线一区二区 | 国产精品毛片高清在线完整版 | 国产成人无码精品久久久免 | 精品国产99久久久久久麻豆 | 国产不卡高清免费av | 国产精品国产免费无码专区蜜桃 | 97人妻在线免费视频 | 国产高清波多野结衣 | 99久久国产亚洲综合精品 | 国产精品无码不卡系列在线 | 国产女人高潮视频在线观看 | 国产精品入 | 丰满年轻岳欲乱中文 | 国产一区二区三区不卡av | 18禁裸乳无遮挡自慰免费动漫 | 精品一区二区三区波多野结衣电影 | 国产三级片久久久久久水户香奈 | 99国产欧美另类久久久精品 | 国产中文字幕视频在线观看 | 99久久夜色精品国产亚洲96 | 国产a视频的魅力与发展现状 | 国产av激情无码久久 | 福利一区二区在线观看 | 国产精品高潮呻吟88av | 国产日韩欧美一区二区东京 | 国产50岁露脸老熟女正在播放 | 国产精品成人99久久久久 | 国产高清在线精品一区不卡 | 国产熟女高潮精选视频 | 91精品国产福利尤物 | 97午夜理论片影 | 91大神精品网站在线观看 | 精品一区二区三区av天堂 | 国产一区二区三区四区二区 | 国产夜色精品一区二区在线 | 国产精品宅男在线观看 | 国产91丝袜 | 精品国产乱码九九九久久久 | 二区欧美无遮挡中文字幕人成人 | 国产午夜影视大全免费观看 | 成人三级a视频在线观看 | 成人黄色在线 | av在线播放日韩亚 | 波多野结衣国产一区二区在线观看 | 精品国产天堂综合一区在线 | 国产精品白丝av网站在线观看 | 国产一级久久毛片 | 国产一区二区视频在线关看 | 国产成人精品无码专区 | 丰满人妻少妇久久久久 | 国产无套粉嫩白浆在线精品 | 91精品综合久久久久久五月天 | 国产午夜精品片一区二区三区 | 精品国产三级国产av中文 | 国产高清视频在线观看一区二区 | 国产精品爽爽v在线观看无码 | 国产a久久 | 国产三级av国片免费 | 精品国产av色一区 | 99久久精品美女高潮喷水 | 国产成人综合亚洲 | 国产精品秘入口麻豆 | 国产成人综合久久精品最新 | 国产午夜成人免费看片无遮挡 | 国产成人综合久久网站 | 国产午夜福利白浆一区二区 | 韩国三级电影精品久久 | 国产999精品2卡3卡4卡 | 91探花国产综 | 福利一区二区三区视 | 成人精品国产一区二区三区 | 国产福利视频一区二区在线播放 | 国产成人精品日本亚洲 | 国内自拍天天操天天干 | 国产福利一区在 | av在线最新网址不卡 | 国产美女精品久久久久中文 | 国产一区二区美女自卫 | 极品尤物一区二区三 | 国产一级片射在线观看 | 国产在线精品一区二区三 | 国产精品一级免费av | 国产午夜精品福利一区久久久 | 91精品久久香蕉国产线看观看 | 国产欧美另类久久久精品图片 | 国产极品美女一区二区三区 | 国产精品无码一区二区 | 国产探花在线观看 | 精品无码久久91毛片视频 | 国产盗摄精品一区 | 国产精品亚韩精品无码在线 | 成人国产一区二区三区香蕉 | 国产刺激对白国产情侣 | 国产精品无码永久免费不卡 | 国产区免费在线观看 | 成人国成人国产su | 国产精品成人网红女主播 | 国产成人高清在线观看视频 | 国产无码在线不卡 | 国产人妻精品区一区二区三区 | 国产欧美日韩免费一区二区 | 18禁很色很爽很黄的免费网站 | 国产美女裸体露胸网站 | 国产成人综合久久亚洲精品 | 国产日韩精品在线播放 | 高清视频一区二区三区 | 高潮呻吟在线观看 | 国产综合成色在线视频 | 国精产品一区二区三区公司 | 国产成人女人在线视频观看 | 丰满美女冒白浆久久久久久久 | 91九色成人| 国精品一区二区三区颜色 | 国产99久久精品一区二区 | 国产成人毛片在线视频软件 | 99久久精品美女高潮噴水 | 成人午夜无码影院视频在线观看 | 国产av毛片影院精品资源 | 成人免费aⅴ视频一区二区 成人免费aa片 | 国产精品办公室沙发 | av无码不卡一区二区三区 | 91丝袜在线观看 | 韩国激情三小时三级合集 | 国产欧美精品一区二区色综 | 国产精品一区二区免费在线观 | 国产69精品久久久久app下载 | 国产午夜高清高清在线观看 | 国产成人精品高清在线观看 | 国产va无码人在线观看天堂 | 国产爆乳无码一区二区麻豆 | 精品无码一区二区三区土豆 | 国产蜜臀久久v一 | 91精品一区二区在线观看 | 国产av夜夜爱夜夜操 | 国产成人精品优优av | 高清国产亚洲精品自在久久 | 高清无码免费一级 | 国产99久久精品 | 国产超级乱婬视 | 国产麻豆精品免费视频 | 高清欧美日韩一区二区三区在线 | 国内精品一区二区2025在线 | 东京热加勒比天然素人无码 | 国产高清久久久久久 | 97人妻在线免费视频 | 国产精品欧美一区二区二区二区 | av一区二区 | 高清无码爱爱免费视频 | av免费毛片一区二区蜜臀 | 国产免费怕怕免费视频观看 | 成人国产三级在线播放 | 国产精品日韩在线观看一区二区 | 国产精品疯狂输出白丝jk | 高清不卡一区二区 | 成人做爰视频试看120秒 | 精品亚洲一区二区三区在线观看 | 观看欧美一区二区三区 | 国产福利秒拍一区二区在线观看 | 精品国产—亚洲人成在线 | 精品国产一区二区三区久久久蜜臀 | 国产成人午夜福利高清在线 | 国产成人无码精品久久久小说 | 91久国| 国产精品午夜一区二区 | 国产偷抇久久精品a片蜜臀a | 精品国产三级国产av中文 | 精品一区二区高清免费观看 | 国产+高潮+喷浆 | 国产免费无遮挡在线观看视频 | 囯产精品久久久久久久久久无 | 国产成人青青久久大片 | 国产亚洲欧美日韩在线观看 | 精品无码一区二区三区水蜜桃 | 成人国产一区二区精品小说 | 国产91在线播放 | 国产精品日韩欧美一 | 国产午夜精品一区二区 | 国产一区二区三区美女图片 | 国产亚洲视频网站 | 国产欧美综合在线 | 国产一精品一av一免费爽爽 | 国产精品乱子伦一区二区三区 | 国产成人在线一 | 国产麻豆va在线观看 | hezyo东京热无码专区 | 国产作爱视频免费 | 精品少妇综合三级 | 成一级女人大片在线视频 | 国产精品无码一二三区免费 | 精品无人区一码二码三码四码 | 国产av一二三四又爽又色又色 | 国产一线精品在线观看 | h无码精品动漫在线观看导航 | 国产不卡视频在线观看 | 国产午夜成人久久无码一区二区 | 国产主播在线观看 | 国产精品一级二级在线观看 | 成人免费午夜无码视频在线播放 | 精品人妻无码专区 | 国产亚洲欧洲人人网 | 国产a国产国产片 | 不卡高清在线一区二区三 | 精品国产在天天在线观看 | 国产亚洲日本一区二区三区久久久 | 国产av无码国产av毛片 | 国产高清一区二区三区四区 | 国产欧美日韩另类在线专区 | 精品国内一区二区三区在线 | 国产亚洲欧美在线观看的 | 2025亚洲综合一 | 18精品久久久无码午夜福利 | 国产美女精品一区二区三区 | 国产午夜在线观看 | 91久久精品美女高潮喷水白 | av在线播放黄片 | 国产日韩av免费无码一区二区三区 | 国产综合亚洲欧美另类久久久精品 | 成人午夜看片 | 成人无码特黄特黄av片在线 | 国产在线视精品在一区二区 | 18黑白丝水手服自慰喷水 | 国产成人福利 | 高清日韩午夜无码看片 | 国产午夜人做人免费视频中文 | 韩国精品久久久久久无码 | 国产精品白浆精子流水合集 | 国产成a人亚洲精ⅴ品无码樱花 | 国产精品成人av片免费看网站 | 高清无码国产精品区 | 国产成人综合精品一区 | 国产精品成人久久久久久久 | 国产精品日韩在线观看一区二区 | 国产一区二区啪啪啪免费视频 | 极品丝袜写真大尺度无内 | 国产午夜精品片一区二区三区 | 国产精品日韩欧美一 | 国产在线欧美精品中文一区 | 国产无套推油按摩女视频推油 | 海角乱伦蝌蚪永久甘蔗 | 99精品国产自在现线10页 | www夜片内射 | 国产色视频自在线观看 | 国产精品va尤物在线观看 | 2025国产天天躁 | 国产成人无码精品久久二区三区 | 国产成人精品久久亚洲高清不卡 | 国产aⅴ无码专区亚洲av | 国产日韩精品欧美一区灰灰 | 国产成人综合日韩精品无码 | 国产精品亚洲a∨天堂 | 国产麻豆精品精东影业av网站 | 精品国产亚洲一区二 | 国产一区二区三区成人久久片老牛 | 激情国产av做激情国产爱 | 国产精品白丝av网站在线观看 | 精品无码欧美一区二区三区不卡 | 91精品国产免费自在线观看 | 国产极品网站在线观看 | 成人免费a级毛片 | 国产成人精品一区二区三区在线 | 91亚洲自偷观看高清 | 91精品国产福利姬喷 | 国产av旡码专区亚洲av苍井空 | 成人片黄网站久久久免费 | 精品国产91麻豆自产在线观看 | 2025在线精品自偷自拍无码 | 国产精品高潮久久久久久无码 | 国产成人影院一区二区 | 国产极品超大美女白嫩在线 | 国产精品乱理伦片中文 | av无码免费永久在线观看 | 91久久精品免费看国产一区 | 精品国产三级a∨在线欧美 精品国产三级a∨在线无码 | 91视频这里只有 | 国产精品一区在线麻豆 | 国精一二二产品无人区 | 国产午夜精品一本在线观看 | 91亚洲自偷手 | 国产av午夜精品一 | 2025最新无码精品国产 | 国产精品亚洲欧美大片在线观看 | 二区三区中文字幕 | 精品亚洲国产成av人片传媒 | 国产高清在线精品一区不卡 | 国内午夜熟妇又乱又伦 | 国产成人精品毛片卡 | 精品无码国产一区二区三区在线看 | 国产在线播放一区 | 国产尤物精品视频 | 国产91白丝在线 | 91av在线免费观看 | 国产成人精品三上悠亚久久 | 2025国产麻豆剧果冻传媒免 | 国产精品丝袜一区二区三区在线 | 国产精品成久久久久三级四虎 | 国产主播一区二区三区在线观 | 国产av剧情md精品麻豆 | 国产成人亚洲精品无码青app | 国产一区二三区视频在线播放 | 国产精品白浆冒出视频 | 国产欧美综合在线区专区 | 国产无套码aⅴ在线观 | 99精品视频在线播放 | 国产av天堂 | 成人午夜亚洲精品无码区 | 2025国产丝袜在线观看 | 精品人妻一区二区三区 | 国产成人福利视频在线观看 | 精品无码成人片一区二区 | 国产午夜福利高清小视频合集 | 国产女主播精品视频一区 | 国产在线91手机观 | 国产91尤物在线观看互动交流 | 福利视频一区二区三区四区五区 | 国产aⅴ精品一区二区三区 国产aⅴ精品一区二区三区久久 | 国产超碰97久久人人操人人操 | 国产一区视频在线免费观看 | 精品免费一区二区三区 | 国产午夜视频在线观看 | 国模自拍日韩在线播放视频网站 | 国产成人毛片在线视频软件 | 国产成人精品cao在线 | 国产精品啪啪一区 | 精品国色天香新区卡一卡二 | 国产日韩精品欧美一区喷 | 丰满的瑜伽老师bd三级 | 成人精品视频一区二区三区不卡 | 国产寡妇树林野战在线播放 | 国精品午夜福利视频不卡 | 国产成人免费视频精品一区二区 | 国产成人涩涩涩视频在线观看免费 | 99精品欧美美女福到在线不卡 | 国产精品毛片v一区二区三区 | 成人一区在线 | 国产自愉自愉 | 成片一卡二卡三卡观看 | 国产精品一区二区宅男宅女 | 成人α片免费视频在线观看 | 国产裸舞在线一区二区 | 国产二区交换配乱婬 | 国产毛片a级久久久不卡精品 | 国产精品亚洲欧美—级久久精品 | 成人精品一区二区三区电影 | 国产午夜精品福利一区久久久 | 国语高清精品一区二区三区 | 丰满一个美女app视频免费软 | 国产精品国产免费 | 成人在线一区二区三区 | 国产综合亚洲区在线观看 | 99精品免费视频在 | 国产91免费精品电影 | 国产一级a爱做片免费看 | 国产中文字幕一级片在线观看 | 国产精品日韩在线一区 | 成人亚洲综合网站 | 精品亚洲高清一区二区 | 国产精品亚洲专区无码老司国 | aⅴ在线视频 | av无码精品久久久久精品免费 | 国产成人av无码精品 | 国产精品人人妻人人爽人人牛 | 国产成人精品免费播放视频 | 91人妻人人澡人人爽人人精 | 成人动漫在线观看 | 国产激情一区二区三区不卡 | 极品女神白富美露脸啪啪 | 国产精品盗摄一区二区在线 | 国产精品视频一区视频二区 | 国产高清一区二区三区直播 | 国产精品免费高清 | 国产午夜无码喷水福利在线观看 | 成人国产精品一级**片视频 | 18禁成年无码免费 | 国产一区二区精品在线观看 | 国产亚洲欧美在线 | 国产美女激情作爱网站 | av无码理论片在线观看免费 | 国产精品亚洲αv | 91嫩草国产在线无码观看 | 国产自产第一区 | 国产精品亚洲免费 | 国产成人福利美女 | 国产精品乱码一二三区的特点 | 国产成人爱片免费观看视频 | 2025久久国产福利国产秒拍 | 国产观看 | 国产三级级在线电影 | 国产重口老太和小伙乱 | 国产欧美野外性生活 | 99久久婷婷国产综合亚洲 | 99国产精品视频 | 国产成人午夜福利高清在线观看 | 国产精品无码免费播放 | 丰满年轻岳欲乱中文 | 国产精品九九免费视频 | 国产成人久久精品激情 | 成人毛片无码一区二区三区 | 精品人妻无码一区二区三区在线 | 成人国内免费精品视频在线观看 | 国产精品三级国产精品高 | 国产成人精品无 | 国产精品爆乳在线播放 | 国产午夜无码视频免费网站 | 国产欧美产日产综合在线 | 国产成人精品三级在线 | 国产极品网站在线观看 | 精品国内自产拍在线视频 | 国产成人av在线线奂播 | 99久久精品国产免费男女 | 91精品在线国产 | 国产精品一区二区无线 | 丰满白嫩的大屁股xxxxx视频 | 国产成人精品午夜视频 | 91久久精品国产91久久 | 国产91足控脚交在线观看 | 国产精品无码一二三区免费 | 成人无码区免费av毛 | 2025国产剧免费在线观看 | 国产午夜福利不卡在线观看视频 | 国产高清一区视频在线播放 | 国产va免费高清在线观看 | 高清无码一区 | 精品国产一区二区三区久久久蜜臀 | 91日韩高清在线观看播放 | 国产精品一区二区在线观看网站 | 成人国产免费午夜福利片在线 | 国产欧美一二三区 | 国产91精品一区二区麻豆亚洲 | 国产成人福利视频在线观看 | 国产午夜高清无码视频 | 国产三级不卡靖品播放 | a级毛片在线免费 | 丰满熟妇乱又伦精品 | 精品视频一区二区三三区 | 国产高清路线一路线二2025 | 国产高清一级黄色片 | 国产欧洲精品自在自线官方 | 国产韩国欧美日本在线 | 成人精品视频在线观看不卡 | 国产午夜小视频在线 | 精品国产亚一区二区三区不卡 | 国产v无码专区亚洲v手机麻豆 | 成人精品在线免费观看 | 囯产三级无码不卡在线观看 | 精品一区二区啪视频 | 国产精品一区二区三区高清在线 | 国产高清无码黄片亚洲成人毛片 | 国产麻豆成av人片在线观看 | 国产精品一区二区av片福利 | 高清日韩国产无码一区二区 | 国产精品毛片大码女人 | 99国产精品无码久久久久 | 国产在线精品一区 | 丰满人妻一区二区三区免费视频 | 国产免费又粗又猛又爽视频国产 | 精品无码国产日韩制服丝袜 | 国产精品va尤物在线观看 | 成人午夜视频在线观看免费 | 国产熟女aa级毛片 | 国产精品成aⅴ人片在线观看 | 国产萝裸体视频福利 | 国产午夜福利片国产一级a片 | 丰满人妻熟妇乱又伦精品软件 | 成人午夜亚洲精品无码区 | 国产在线无遮挡的免费视频 | 国产一区二区在线观看的网址 | 精品国产高清在线观看国产 | 国产在线成人 | 91人成尤物在线 | 9191精品国产免费久久国 | 国产欧美a级成人 | 国产精品视频一区二区三区四 | 国产精品福利一区二区 | av鲁丝一区鲁丝二区鲁丝三区 | 国产精品午夜高清在线观看 | 国产在线无遮挡的免费视频 | 国产91无码福利在线 | 国产精品青青青高清在线密亚 | 丰满迷人的少妇特级毛片 | 国产福利小视频在线播放观看 | 动漫精品啪啪一区二区免费 | 91高清| 国产传媒一区二区三区四区五区 | 国产精品日韩精品久久密挑 | av片在线观看免费 | 成人嫩草研究院久久久精品 | a级毛片中文字幕完整版 | 国产一区二区免 | 国产激情一区二区三区四区 | a级一级毛片大全视频 | 国产成人精品无码免费视频 | 91精品欧美一区二区三区 | av资源每日更新网站在线 | 国产成人www | 国产一区精品3d动漫在线 | 国产精品美女视频免费观看 | 国产成人高清激情视频在线观看 | 国产午夜不卡精品午夜电影 | 国产偷伦视频 | 91福利精品老师国产自产在线 | 成人午夜免费视频 | 91麻豆国产激情在线 | 国产+欧美+激情 | 国产a一级毛片精品高清乱码 | 精品国产免费第一区二区 | 国庆产少妇xxxxx性开放 | 精品撒尿视频一区二区三区 | 国产精品白浆在线播放 | 国产无套在线观看视频 | 国产精品高潮呻吟久久 | 91九色在线精品一区二区 | 国产女主播白浆在线看 | 国产制服丝袜亚洲高清 | 精品久久99久久久久胖女人 | 国产精品白丝网站 | 国产原创顾美玲剧情在线 | 99精品国产高清一区二区三 | 成人日韩熟女高清视频一区 | 国产亚洲欧美日韩剧的剧情介绍 | 国产精品日韩一区二区三 | 国产成人啪午夜精品网站男同 | 国语自产偷拍 | 高清一区二区三区四区五区 | 国产性高清在线观看 |